1)Neem
for
Sustainable
Development
and
Environmental
Conservation
:
Indian
Perspective
By:
Dr.
Ramesh
C.
Saxena
The
population
of
India
has
already
crossed
the
one
billion
mark.
Providing
adequate
food
entitlements,
safeguarding
public
health,
meeting
fuel
and
firewood
needs,
and
at
the
same
time
preventing
deforestation
and
conserving
the
environment,
and
slowing
down
the
population
growth
will
be
daunting
challenges
in
the
coming
decades.
Although
"green
revolution
technologies"
have
more
than
doubled
the
yield
potential
of
cereals,
especially
rice
and
wheat
in
India,
these
high
-
input
production
systems
requiring
large
quantities
of
fertilizers,
pesticides,
irrigation,
and
machines,
disregard
the
ecological
integrity
of
land,
forests,
and
water
resources,
endanger
the
flora
and
fauna,
and
cannot
be
sustained
over
generations.
Future
food
security
and
economic
development
would
depend
on
improving
the
productivity
or
biophysical
resources
through
the
application
of
sustainable
production
methods,
by
improving
tolerance
of
crops
to
adverse
environmental
conditions,
and
by
reducing
crop
and
post-harvest
losses
caused
by
pests
and
diseases.
Appropriate
technologies,
which
do
not
assault
the
nature,
would
have
key
roles
to
play
in
ensuring
food
security,
in
improving
public
and
animal
health,
and
in
rehabilitation
the
environment
to
safeguard
the
well
being
of
the
posterity.
The
future
must
look
to
natural
ways
and
process
for
augmenting
agricultural
productivity.
In
fact,
all
development
efforts
and
activities,
including
pest
management,
should
be
within
well-defined
ecological
rules
rather
than
within
narrow
economic
gains.
Sustainable
agricultural
systems
must
be
efficient
(i.e.
effective
and
economically
rewarding)
and
ecologically
sound
for
long-term
food
sufficiency,
equitable
in
providing
social
justice,
ethical
in
respecting
both
future
generations
and
other
species,
and
also
lead
to
employment
and
income-generating
opportunities.
For
India,
the
use
of
neem
may
provide
a
key
component
in
ensuring
sustainable
agricultural
systems,
including
pest
and
nutrient
management,
animal
health,
human
health,
and
environmental
conservation.
Neem,
a
member
of
the
Meliaceae
family,
is
a
botanical
cousin
of
mahogany.
According
to
report
of
an
ad
hoc
panel
of
the
Board
on
Science
and
Technology
for
International
Development,
"this
plant
may
usher
in
a
new
era
in
pest
control,
provide
millions
with
inexpensive
medicines,
cut
down
the
rate
of
human
population
growth
and
even
reduce
erosion,
deforestation,
and
the
excessive
temperature
of
an
overheated
globe."
Neem's
other
descriptions,
such
as
"nature's
gift
to
mankind,"
"the
tree
for
many
an
occasion,"
"
the
tree
that
purifies,"
"
the
wonder
tree,"
"the
tree
of
the
21st
century,"
and
"a
tree
for
solving
global
problems,"
are
a
recognition
of
its
versatility.
Its
botanic
name,
Azadirachta
indica,
derived
from
Farsi,
"azad
darakht
i
hindi"
literally
means
the
"free
or
noble
tree
of
India,"
suggesting
that
it
is
intrinsically
free
from
pest
and
disease
problems
and
is
benign
to
the
environment.
Neem
is
an
evergreen,
tall,
fast-growing
tree,
which
can
reach
a
height
of
25m
and
2.5m
in
girth.
It
has
an
attractive
crown
of
deepgreen
foliage
and
masses
of
honey
scented
flowers.
A
full-grown
tree
can
produce
30
to
100
kg
of
fruits,
depending
on
rainfall,
insolation,
soil
type,
and
ecotype.
50
kg
of
fruit
yields
30
kg
of
seed,
which
gives
6
kg
of
oil
and
24
kg
of
seed
cake.
Neem
has
more
than
100
unique
bio-active
compounds,
which
have
potential
applications
in
agriculture,
animal
care,
public
health,
and
for
even
regulating
human
fertility.
Neem
has
had
a
long
history
of
use
primarily
against
household
and
storage
pests
and
to
some
extent
against
crop
pests
in
India.
With
the
advent
of
broad-spectrum,
toxic
insecticides,
such
as
DDT,
the
use
of
neem
in
crop
protection
declined.
However,
over
the
past
two
decades,
neem
has
been
come
under
close
scientific
scrutiny
"as
a
source
of
unique
natural
products
for
IPM,
medicine,
industry,
and
other
purposes.
In
spite
of
high
selectivity,
neem
derivatives
affect
400
to
500
species
of
mites
and
ticks,
nematodes,
and
even
noxious
snails
and
fungi,
and
aflatoxin
-
producing
Asergillus
spp.
Results
of
large-scale
field
trials
conducted
by
me
and
others
have
illustrated
the
value
of
neem-based
pest
management
for
enhancing
agricultural
productivity.
The
use
of
neem
and
fertiliser
mixtures
can
reduce
ammonia
volatilization
loss
caused
by
nitrifying
bacteria
in
soil,
thus
effecting
saving
on
fertilizers.
A
large
number
of
neem-based
medicines,
pharmaceuticals,
and
toiletries
are
being
produced
today
and
are
in
great
demand
overseas.
Neem
has
scope
in
reforestation
and
agroforestry
and
rehabilitating
waster
and
degraded
lands.
It
is
useful
as
windbreaks
and
in
areas
of
low
rainfall
and
high
windspeed,
it
can
protect
crops
from
desiccation.
Neem
has
much
to
offer
in
solving
agricultural
and
public
health
problems
in
the
country,
especially
in
rural
areas.
However,
more
neem
trees
will
have
to
be
grown
to
meet
the
increasing
demand
for
insecticidal
and
industrial
uses.
The
local
peasant
community
will
have
to
be
brought
with
the
fold
of
increased
awareness
by
outreaching
and
through
interpersonal
interaction,
by
involving
'sarpanch'
or
village
chiefs,
schools,
women
groups,
and
government
and
non-government
organizations.
Field
demonstrations
and
neem
fairs
at
strategic
locations
will
have
to
be
organized
periodically
in
collaboration
with
local
bodies
or
institutions
to
evoke
the
interest
and
participation
of
target
communities.
Also,
existing
local
initatives,
if
any,
will
have
to
be
strengthened.
Strategies
for
creating
awareness
will
involve
hands-on
training
through
lectures
and
demonstrations
to
trainers,
comprising
agricultural
trainers,
foresters,
extension
personnel,
health
workers,
teachers,
journalists,
and
representatives
of
NGOS,
youth
and
women
groups,
who
would
then
have
a
multiplier
effect
in
target
areas.
They
will
have
to
be
taught
how
to
harvest,
collect
and
process
neem
seed,
grow
and
plant
seedling,
and
use
various
neem
materials
for
pest
management.
The
distribution
of
raw
materials
will
have
to
be
guaranteed
by
establishing
nodal
agencies
in
target
areas.
These
activities
will
create
employment
opportunities
and
also
generate
income.
The
complex
molecular
structure
of
bio-active
neem
compounds
precludes
their
chemical
synthesis
economically.
Therefore,
even
the
chemical
industry
will
have
to
rely
on
the
use
of
raw
material.
With
growing
demand
for
natural
pest
control
materials,
the
use
of
neem
products
is
becoming
popular
worldwide.
In
the
next
decade,
it
is
expected
that
global
neem
trade,
comprising
neem-
based
pest
control
materials,
medicines,
pharmaceuticals,
and
toiletries
will
grow
to
more
than
$500m.
Herein
lies
a
huge
window
of
opportunity
to
benefit
by
growing
and
harnessing
neem
not
only
for
local
use
but
also
for
export
to
regions
and
countries
where
neem
does
not
thrive.
Top
2.
NEEM
:
THE
WONDER
TREE
By
Dr.
Rahman
The
neem
tree
(Azadirachta
indica)
is
regarded
as
one
of
mother
nature's
gift
to
the
world.
In
India
,
it
is
commonly
found
in
house
compounds
in
both
villages
and
cities.
Green
twigs
are
used
as
toothbrushes
to
combat
teeth
decay.
Its
extracts
have
a
powerful
pesticidal
activity
and
are
used
by
both
households
and
farmers
to
control
a
wide
variety
of
pests
(insects,
fungi,
bacteria,
viruses,
nematodes,
rodents
etc.).
These
extracts
have
considerable
antiseptic
affects
and
are
used
as
a
skin
care
agent
in
soaps
and
shampoos.
The
leaves
are
often
mixed
with
rice
and
consumed
as
a
cure
all
and
prophylactic
against
bacterial
and
helminthic
infections.
Neem
leaf
pastes
are
used
to
repair
scarred
skins
arising
from
the
effects
of
chicken
pox.
Not
surprisingly,
many
believe
that
the
neem
tree
itself
can
ward
off
demons.
The
pesticidal
and
medicinal
properties
of
extracts
from
the
neem
tree
have
been
exploited
for
at
least
the
last
2500
years.
Sanskrit
texts
dating
back
to
the
sixth
century
BC,
document
the
microbicidal
and
prophylactic
effects
of
neem
extracts.
Charaka
in
the
6th
Century
BC
recommended
the
oral
consumption
of
neem
extracts
to
ward
off
pimples,
leprosy
and
edema.
Sushruta
in
the
5th
century
BC
recommended
the
use
of
neem-leaf
smoke
for
fumigation
and
maintenance
of
general
hygiene.
He
also
recommended
it
as
a
"krimihara",
an
agent
effective
against
insects,
grubs
and
maggots
and
detailed
the
ability
of
neem
leaves
to
cure
gangrenous
and
otherwise
difficult
to
cure
wounds.
The
neem
tree
appears
to
be
a
biochemical
factory
producing
a
mixture
of
over
135
biologically
active
compounds.
As
a
pestticide,
the
oil
from
neem
seeds
are
believed
to
break
the
life
cycle
of
pests
and
deters
them
from
feeding
and/or
hatching.
Studies
have
shown
that
active
compounds
iin
the
oil
inhibited
the
secretion
of
hormones
into
the
blood
inhibting
the
moulting
and
reproductive
function
in
insects.
Neem
oil
is
known
to
be
active
on
over
400
insect
pests.
It
has
for
example
been
found
to
be
effective
against
fleas,
head
lice,
ticks,
termites,
plague
locusts,
mosquitoes
and
sheep
blow
flies.
It
is
believed
to
be
particularly
active
against
chewing
and
sucking
insects
such
as
caterpillars
and
beetle
larvae.
Neem
extracts
have
also
been
shown
to
be
effective
against
nematode
pests.
Neem
cake,
the
by
product
from
neem
seed
processing
appears
to
be
effective
on
nematodes,
snails
and
certain
fungi.
The
neem
tree
and
its
extracts
surprisingly
appear
to
be
benign
to
bees
and
other
nectar
feeding
insects.
Seed
extracts
are
not
known
to
have
any
toxic
effect
on
plants,
mammals
and
birds
and
in
fact
in
studies
by
the
US
EPA,
no
LD-50
could
be
established
even
at
high
doses.
These
remarkable
properties
have
attracted
considerable
interest
from
both
researchers
and
pharmaceutical
companies.
This
renewed
interest
in
neem
created
no
more
than
amusement
in
India
where
the
beneficial
properties
of
neem
have
been
known
for
countless
generations.
This
mood
however
has
recently
changed
with
Grace
Horticultural
Products,
a
unit
of
Grace
Speciality
Chemicals
(USA)
acquiring
the
patent
and
trademark
rights
to
produce
and
sell
insecticidal
neem
extracts.
Their
product,
Margosan-O
Concentrate,
is
protected
under
US
patent
No.
5124349.
In
1995,
a
group
led
by
Mr.
Jeremy
Rifkin,
president
of
the
Foundation
of
Economic
Trends
in
the
US,
Dr.
Vandana
Shiva
of
the
Research
Foundation
for
Science
Technology
and
Natural
Resource
Policy
and
Professor,
Nanjundaswamy
of
the
Karnataka
Rajya
Ryot
Sangha
in
India
contested
the
decision
of
the
US
Patent
and
Trademark
Office.
They
claim
that
the
neem
product
has
long
been
used
as
a
pesticide
in
India
and
is
not
a
new
invention
as
claimed
under
the
patent.
They
claim
that
Grace's
patent
does
not
satisfy
the
criterion
that
the
invention
must
not
be
obvious
to
one
of
ordinary
skill
in
the
art.
They
assert
that
the
Grace
process
only
slightly
differs
from
that
used
by
farmers
in
India.
Grace
on
the
otherhand
claims
that
its
patent
relates
to
a
formulation
based
on
neem-seed
extract.
They
assert
their
formulation
overcomes
the
problems
associated
with
the
instability
of
azadirachtin,
the
primary
active
pesticidal
ingredient
from
the
plant,
in
traditionally
used
water
or
alcohol
based
emulsions.
Further
the
awarding
of
patents
based
on
the
purification
or
modification
of
naturally
occurring
substances
is
not
new.
For
example,
in
1979,
the
US
Court
of
Customs
and
Patent
Appeals
reversed
a
decision
by
the
Patent
and
Trademark
Office
to
award
a
patent
for
a
compound
purified
from
strawberries.
In
fact,
more
than
40
patents
have
already
been
award
for
inventions
relating
to
a
compound
found
in
neem
seeds
alone.
Regardless
of
its
outcome,
the
legal
battle
ensuing
between
Grace
and
its
opponents
will
have
significant
ramifications
for
the
natural
products
industry.
Rifkin
and
partners
assert
that
the
patent
and
other
similar
patents
will
mean
that
"indigenous
populations
around
the
world,
will
be
excluded
from
freely
using
many
of
the
local
biological
resources
that
have
been
carefully
developed
and
nurtured
over
hundreds
of
years".
It
has
even
been
claimed
that
in
a
worst
case
scenarios
that
indigenous
farmers
would
have
to
pay
royalties
to
carry
on
their
centuries-old
farming
practices.
Unfortunately
the
latter
argument
fails
to
consider
that
no
universal
patent
exists
and
as
such
Grace's
patent
is
not
valid
in
India.
Indian
farmers
can
thus
choose
to
pay
a
premium
for
Grace's
formulation
or
continue
to
produce
their
own.
As
a
result
of
this
case,
developing
countries
are
now
more
concerned
about
the
consequences
of
the
loss
in
sole
proprietary
of
a
biological
resource.
Recently,
a
senior
official
from
the
Indian
Council
of
Agricultural
Research
voiced
his
concern
on
the
"pilfering"
of
traditional
plant
varieties
from
India.
"The
neem
is
ours
and
nobody
can
take
it
away".
His
claim
may
be
a
case
of
closing
the
door
after
the
horse
has
bolted
and
is
indeed
somewhat
curious,
given
that
neem
trees
have
been
successfuly
grown
in
over
17
countries.
They
can
in
fact
be
obtained
here
in
Singapore.
The
Indian
government
is
in
the
process
of
formulating
a
Plant
Varieties
Protection
Act
which
will
seek
to
protect
over
2,300
currently
unprotected
Indian
plant
varieties.
Whether
other
countries
follow
India's
lead
will
certainly
have
a
significant
influence
on
both
research
and
production
of
natural
products.
:
Reproduced
with
permission
from
Dr.Mallick
Rahman
Top
3.
NEEM
OIL:
FACTS
&
EXPERIENCES
By
Mr
Larry
Evans
I
can
only
tell
you
of
my
experience
with
Neem
Oil.
I
cannot
recommend
Neem
oil
because
our
government
(
USA
)
has
not
approved
its
use
on
orchids
or
on
any
plants.
When
I
refer
to
Neem
oil,
I
mean
pure
Neem
Oil
as
pressed
from
the
seeds
of
the
Neem
tree.
I
have
never
used
any
product
with
Neem
oil
in
it.
I
don't
know
that
it
would
be
as
safe
as
pure
Neem
oil.
Where
does
Neem
oil
come
from?
Originally
it
came
from
India.
The
Indian
natives
have
been
using
Neem
for
about
3000
years
as
an
internal
remedy
as
well
as
an
ingredient
in
tooth
paste,
soap,
shampoo,
cosmetics
and
skin
creams.
I
have
never
used
a
product
in
the
greenhouse
whose
effects
were
as
efficient
and
long
lasting
as
Neem.
Insecticides
and
fungicides
that
I
had
previously
used
were
a
short-term
fix
-
about
two
weeks.
And
the
smell
was
offensive
and
lasted
for
days.
But
it
was
what
was
available
to
keep
a
clean
insect
free
greenhouse
even
if
the
fumes
from
most
insecticides
caused
me
to
have
allergic
reactions.
Due
to
a
long
term
illness,
my
greenhouse
became
a
disaster
area.
In
January,
as
the
phalaenopsis
were
spiking,
the
mealy
bugs
moved
in
by
the
thousands.
About
75%
of
the
mature
plants
had
fire
ants
in
the
pot.
Scale
was
rampant.
We
had
snails
and
slugs
so
big
they
looked
dangerous.
Toxic
sprays
did
not
get
rid
of
them
completely.
The
first
time
I
used
Neem
oil
(1
oz.
to
1
gallon
of
water
+
few
drops
of
dishwashing
liquid),
I
sprayed
every
plant,
bench,
walkway
and
under
every
bench.
In
a
few
days
there
was
a
definite
improvement.
I
waited
2
weeks
and
sprayed
again.
I
kept
a
close
eye
on
the
plants,
no
mealy
bugs,
scale
and
best
of
all
the
fire
ants
were
gone.
And
no
more
slugs
and
snails.
I
didn't
spray
again
for
six
months.
I
found
a
snail
and
a
slug,
no
other
'live
stock',
but
I
decided
to
spray
everything
again.
The
beauty
part
of
using
Neem
oil
is
that
you
don't
have
to
wear
protective
clothing
or
special
breathing
equipment
and
there
are
no
sickening
odors.
Neem
oil
does
have
an
odor,
best
described
as
'kind
of
like
onion
soup'.
However,
the
odor
only
lingers
for
a
short
time.
How
does
Neem
get
rid
of
insects?
Most
insects
die
shortly
after
spraying.
Those
remaining
become
sterile
and
do
not
reproduce.
I've
heard
a
story
of
2
desert
locusts,
2
grape
leaves
and
2
bell
jars.
One
grape
leaf
was
sprayed
with
an
insecticide,
the
other
with
Neem.
One
locust
and
one
grape
leaf
were
put
under
each
bell
jar.
The
locust
ate
the
toxic
leaf
and
died.
The
other
locust
refused
to
eat
the
Neem
sprayed
leaf
and
starved
to
death.
From
my
experience
the
story
could
be
true.
I
believe
it
is
better
if
you
can
prevent
the
insect
from
eating
the
plant,
than
to
let
them
eat
the
plant
and
then
die.
It
takes
years
to
lose
the
damaged
leaves
on
most
orchids.
Flowers
can
be
ruined
before
the
critters
will
die
from
insecticide.
I've
not
been
disappointed
with
Neem
Oil.
I'm
sure
that
many
who
read
this
will
be
sceptical
because
of
the
'do
everything'
claim.
We
have
a
cat
that
has
grown
up
in
the
greenhouse.
Neem
hasn't
bothered
her
at
all.
Panzie
greets
all
comers
and
we
certainly
would
not
use
anything
that
would
hurt
her.
We
also
used
Neem
on
my
daughter's
dog,
a
Shar-pei.
The
dog
was
biting
and
chewing
her
fur
and
making
sores
and
bald
spots
all
over
her
coat.
The
veterinarian
said
she
had
hair
mites.
There
is
a
treatment
for
this
-
a
series
of
6
dips
at
$65.00
per
dip
and
only
a
50%
chance
of
a
cure.
I
suggested
that
she
try
using
a
'Neem
rinse'
after
bathing
the
dog,
using
a
1
oz.
to
1
gallon
of
water.
This
treatment
was
followed
for
three
weeks.
The
dog
has
stopped
chewing
herself
and
has
grown
back
a
full
glossy
coat.
It
is
also
harmless
on
people.
A
lady
in
our
orchid
society
has
an
allergy
to
mosquito
bites.
Living
in
Florida
she
had
a
problem
working
in
her
garden,
fishing
or
taking
an
evening
stroll.
She
had
used
spray
repellents
but
it
was
difficult
to
use
and
not
always
satisfactory.
She
tried
Neem
oil
and
she
swears
by
it.
When
I
use
Neem
oil
I
only
mix
the
amount
I
will
use
within
four
hours.
Neem
is
very
biodegradable
and
will
start
to
break
down
quickly.
If
it
is
kept
in
the
refrigerator
at
approximately
40F
the
shelf
life
is
extended.
As
any
organic
oil,
it
will
turn
rancid.
How
soon
will
depend
on
the
storage
temperature.
We
have
used
pure
Neem
oil
on
cattleya,
dendrobium,
phaleanopsis,
oncidiums,
vanilla,
vanda,
peristeria,
etc.
We
have
detected
no
damage
to
any
of
these
plants.
Reproduced
with
permission
from
Mr
Larry
Evans
Top
4.
Tips
On
Using
Neem
Oil
By
Mr
Larry
Evans
1.
Pure
Neem
Oil
will
retain
its
potency
much
longer
if
stored
at
about
40°
F
in
a
low
light
area
such
as
a
refrigerator.
2.
Do
not
mix
anything
with
Neem
oil
until
you
are
ready
to
use
it.
Mix
only
the
amount
of
Neem
oil
you
will
use
in
4
to
6
hours.
3.
A
new
batch
of
Neem
oil,
water
and
a
little
soap
(according
to
the
label)
should
be
mixed
each
time
you
are
going
to
spray.
4.
The
soap
(dishwashing
detergent)
is
used
to
help
emulsify
the
oil.
If
no
soap
is
used
the
Neem
will
not
mix
into
solution
with
the
water
and
spraying
will
not
be
effective.
5.
Spray
the
complete
plant
including
the
top
of
the
potting
media.
Spray
benches,
walkways
and
any
surface
over
which
an
insect
might
travel.
6.
A
mixture
of
1
oz.
to
1
gallon
of
water
should
be
used
for
spraying.
A
weaker
solution
may
be
used
as
a
maintenance
spray.
It
is
impossible
to
gie
a
definite
schedule
for
spraying,
however
a
"close
eye"
will
help
each
person
to
adjust
a
timetable
to
maintain
clean
plants.
You
will
probably
not
have
to
spray
as
often
with
Neem
as
with
toxic
insecticides.
Reproduced
with
permission
from
Mr
Larry
Evans
Top
5.
Azadirachtin
Complete
Profile
Properties
of
Azadirachtin
(
obtained
from
Seeds
of
Neem
Tree
)
Following
Details
Reproduced
Below
With
Permission
From
Cornell
University.
Azadirachtin
Regulatory
Status
Azadirachtin
is
registered
in
the
United
States
as
a
general
use
pesticide
with
a
toxicity
classification
of
IV
(relatively
non-toxic).
Check
with
specific
state
regulations
for
local
restrictions
which
may
apply.
Products
containing
azadirachtin
must
bear
the
signal
word
"Caution"
or
"Warning"
on
their
label
(1).
Introduction
The
key
insecticidal
ingredient
found
in
the
neem
tree
is
azadirachtin,
a
naturally
occurring
substance
that
belongs
to
an
organic
molecule
class
called
tetranortriterpenoids
(6).
It
is
structurally
similar
to
insect
hormones
called
"ecdysones,"
which
control
the
process
of
metamorphosis
as
the
insects
pass
from
larva
to
pupa
to
adult.
Metamorphosis
requires
the
careful
synchrony
of
many
hormones
and
other
physiological
changes
to
be
successful,
and
azadirachtin
seems
to
be
an
"ecdysone
blocker."
It
blocks
the
insect's
production
and
release
of
these
vital
hormones.
Insects
then
will
not
molt,
thus
breaking
their
life
cycle
(4,
5).
Azadirachtin
may
also
serve
as
a
feeding
deterrent
for
some
insects.
Depending
on
the
stage
of
life-cycle,
insect
death
may
not
occur
for
several
days.
However,
upon
ingestion
of
minute
quantities,
insects
become
quiescent
and
stop
feeding.
Residual
insecticidal
activity
is
evident
for
7
to
10
days
orlonger,
depending
on
insect
and
application
rate
(1,2).
Azadirachtin
is
used
to
control
whiteflies,
aphids,
thrips,
fungus
gnats,
caterpillars,
beetles,
mushroom
flies,
mealybugs,
leafminers,
gypsy
moths
and
others
on
food,
greenhouse
crops,
ornamentals
and
turf
(2,
11).
TOXICOLOGICAL
EFFECTS
ACUTE
TOXICITY
The
acute
oral
toxicity
in
rats
fed
technical
grade
azadirachtin
ranged
from
greater
than
3,540
mg/kg
to
greater
than
5,000
mg/kg,
the
highest
dose
tested
when
administered
undiluted
to
albino
rats
(1,
2,
3).
The
acute
inhalation
toxicity
study
in
rats
exposed
to
technical
azadirachtin
showed
that
the
acute
inhalation
LD50
is
greater
than
2.41
mg/L
per
animal,
the
highest
dose
tested.
Although
this
figure
is
below
the
5.0
mg/L
limit
test
dose
for
an
acute
inhalation
study,
the
reported
concentration
was
the
maximum
dose
possible
under
the
test
conditions.
No
deaths
occurred
during
the
course
of
the
study.
Azadirachtin
was
given
a
toxicity
classification
of
Category
III
(3).
A
primary
eye
irritation
study
in
rabbits
exposed
to
technical
azadirachtin
was
rated
mild
to
moderately
irritating
after
instillation
of
0.1
gm
of
the
undiluted
material.
At
one
hour
post-instillation,
the
maximum
eye
irritation
score
was
15.3/110;
by
24,
48,
and
72
hours
the
scores
were
6.2/110,
0.3/110,
and
0/110,
respectively.
It
was
given
a
toxicity
category
of
III
(3).
Primary
dermal
irritation
in
rabbits
when
tested
at
a
single
dose
(0.5
gm)
by
applying
it
to
the
shaved
backs
of
rabbits,
did
not
cause
any
dermal
irritation
after
4
hours
of
exposure.
The
dermal
score
was
zero
for
all
treated
rabbits
at
all
examination
times.
A
toxicity
category
of
IV,
mild
to
slightly
irritating,was
assigned.
An
acute
dermal
toxicity
study
of
rabbits
exposed
to
technical
azadirachtin
was
performed.
The
material
was
applied
for
24
hours
at
a
single
dose
of
2.0
gm/kg
to
the
shaved
backs
of
the
rabbits,
that
caused
dermal
irritation
which
resolved
by
day
nine.
Azadirachtin
was
classified
as
a
mild
irritant
(3).
Another
study
reported
the
dermal
LD50
for
rabbits
to
be
>2,000
mg/kg
(1,2).
Dermal
sensitization
in
guinea
pigs
found
the
technical
end-use
product
to
be
categorized
as
a
mild
sensitizer
when
administered
undiluted
to
albino
guinea
pigs.
The
test
material
was
considered
a
weak
dermal
sensitizer
to
albino
guinea
pigs
(3).
CHRONIC
TOXICITY
A
90-day
oral
toxicity
study
in
rats
fed
levels
of
500,
2500,
and
10,000
ppm
of
azadirachtin
showed
no
signs
of
overt
systemic
toxicity
at
any
dose
level
after
90
days
of
feeding.
Mean
body
weight
was
significantly
decreased
in
the
10,000
ppm
males
and
females
at
weeks
3
and
4,
respectively.
This
persisted
for
the
duration
of
the
90-day
feeding
period
(11).
Reproductive
Effects
Male
antifertility
activity
of
neem
leaf
extract
was
studied
in
mice,
rats,
rabbits
and
guinea
pigs
by
daily
oral
feeding
of
a
cold-water
extract
of
fresh
green
neem
leaves.
The
infertility
effect
was
seen
in
treated
male
rats
as
there
was
a
66.7%
reduction
in
fertility
after
6
weeks,
80%
after
9
weeks,
and
100%
after
11
weeks.
There
was
no
inhibition
of
spermatogenesis.
During
this
period
there
was
no
decrease
in
body
weight
and
no
other
manifestation
of
toxicity
observed.
There
was
a
marked
decrease
in
the
mortality
of
spermatozoa.
The
infertility
in
rats
was
not
associated
with
loss
of
libido
or
with
impotence
and
the
animals
maintained
normal
mating
behavior.
The
male
antifertility
activity
was
reversible
in
4
to
6
weeks.
Neem
extract
also
shows
reversible
male
antifertility
activity
in
mice
without
inhibition
of
spermatogenesis.
In
guinea
pigs
and
rabbits,
however,
it
exhibited
toxicity
as
demonstrated
by
66.6%
and
74.9%
mortality
in
guinea
pigs
and
80
and
90%
mortality
in
rabbits
at
the
end
of
4
and
6
weeks,
respectively
(9).
Teratogenic
Effects
No
information
was
found.
Mutagenic
Effects
Technical
azadirachtin
was
evaluated
for
the
potential
to
cause
gene
mutations
in
the
S.
typhimurium
strains
at
any
dose
(5,
50,
500,
5,000
micrograms/plate)
with
or
without
S-9
activation.
The
study
was
negative
(3).
Carcinogenic
Effects
No
information
was
found.
Fate
in
Humans
and
Animals
No
information
was
found.
ECOLOGICAL
EFFECTS
Effects
on
Birds
No
significant
effects
on
other
wildlife
were
reported
(8).
Effects
on
Aquatic
Organisms
The
LC50
for
rainbow
trout
exposed
to
azadirachtin
is
0.48
ppm
(11).
It
may
cause
significant
fish
kill
if
large
concentrations
reach
waterways.
It
breaks
down
rapidly
(in
50-100
hours)
in
water
or
light,
and
is
not
likely
to
accumulate
or
cause
long-term
effects
(8,
11).
Effects
on
Other
Animals
(Nontarget
species)
Azadirachtin
is
relatively
harmless
to
spiders,
butterflies,
and
insects
such
as
bees
that
pollinate
crops
and
trees,
ladybugs
that
consume
aphids,
and
wasps
that
act
as
parasites
on
various
crop
pests.
This
is
because
neem
products
must
be
ingested
to
be
effective.
Thus,
insects
that
feed
on
plant
tissue
succumb,
while
those
that
feed
on
nectar
or
other
insects
rarely
contact
significant
concentrations
of
neem
products.
Another
study
found
that
only
after
repeated
spraying
of
highly
concentrated
neem
products
onto
plants
in
flower
were
worker
bees
at
all
affected.
Under
these
extreme
conditions,
the
workers
carried
contaminated
pollen
or
nectar
to
the
hives
and
fed
it
to
the
brood.
Small
hives
then
showed
insect-growth-regulating
effects;
however,
medium-sized
and
large
bee
populations
were
unaffected
(4).
A
study
of
neem
products
and
their
effect
on
mortality,
growth
and
reproduction
of
earthworms
in
soils
was
conducted.
Positive
effects
on
weight
and
survival
were
found
in
soil
treated
with
ground
neem
leaves
and
ground
seed
kernals
under
greenhouse
conditions.
Reproduction
was
slightly
favored
over
a
period
of
13
weeks
in
a
neem-enriched
substrate
in
rearing
cages.
Various
neem
products
were
incorporated
in
the
upper
10-cm
soil
layer
of
tomato
plots.
None
of
the
materials
had
negative
side
effects
on
seven
species
of
earthworms
(10).
No
significant
effects
on
other
wildlife
were
reported
(8).
ENVIRONMENTAL
FATE
Breakdown
of
Chemical
in
Soil
and
Groundwater
Potential
for
mobility
in
soil
is
very
low
for
the
formulated
product
.
Accumulation
in
the
environment
is
not
expected
(8).
Breakdown
of
Chemical
in
Surface
Water
A
formulated
product
which
contains
the
active
ingredient
azadirachtin
is
considered
a
water
pollutant.
It
breaks
down
rapidly
(in
100
hours)
in
water
or
light,
and
will
not
cause
long-term
effects
(8).
Breakdown
of
Chemical
in
Vegetation
Azadirachtin
is
considered
non-phytotoxic
when
used
as
directed
(2).
PHYSICAL
PROPERTIES
AND
GUIDELINES
Azadirachtin
is
a
tetranortriterpenoid
botanical
insecticide
of
the
liminoid
class
extracted
from
the
neem
